sabato 27 settembre 2008
Titus Burckhardt
Il simbolismo degli scacchi
venerdì 19 settembre 2008
From 638 to 651, Muslim troops defeated and conquered the Persian empire. It was during this period that Persian items became part of Muslim items.
Shatranj is an ancestor of chess. The Persian name of the game was Chatrang. The game came to Persia from the Indian game of Chaturanga around the 7th century AD. After the game spread to the Islamic world, its name changed to Shatranj. Shatranj was played in the Arab world for the next 9 centuries.
The shatranj pieces were shah (king), fers (counselor or general that later became the Queen), rukh (rook), Alfil (elephant, which later became the bishop), faras (horse or knight), and baidak (pawn). Castling was not allowed. Stalemating the opposing king resulted in a win for the player delivering stalemate.
When shatranj was played, the board was not checkered. There was no initial two-step pawn move or en passant capture option. Pawns arriving at the last rank was always promoted to a fers.
Openings in shatranj were usually called tabiya (battle array). Shatranj problems were called mansuba (position).
In 780, caliph al-Mahdi wrote a letter to Mecca religious leaders to give up shatrang as it was considered gambling and he did not want any graven images.
Harun al-Rashid (763-809), Caliph of Baghdad, may have been the first caliph to play shatranj. He was the 5th Abbasid caliph who ruled between 786 and 809. In 802, al-Rashid sent Charlemagne an ivory shatranj set as a gift.
During the reign of the Arabic caliphs, shatranj players of the highest class were called aliyat.
Around 820, Jabir al-Kufi, Rabrab, and Abun-Naam were three aliyat players during the rule of caliph Abu Jafar al-Ma’mun ibn Harun (786-833). He was an Abbasid caliph who reigned from 813 to 833.
Al-Adli (800-870) was the strongest player (aliyat) during the reign of caliph al-Wathiq (died in 847). Al-Wathiq reigned from 842 to 847. He was also patronized by caliph al-Mutawakkil, who came to power in 847 and was murdered by the Turks in 861.
Al-Adli wrote a book on chess, Kitab ash-shatranj (book of shatranj), and a book on nard (kitab an-nard). His books have long been lost, but some of his problems, endgames, and opening systems have survived. His book also contained information on the older game of Chaturanga. His name indicates that he came from some part of the eastern Roman Empire, perhaps Turkey. He was the firs to classify chessplayers, the highest being aliyat. He was the first to categorize the openings into positions called tabiya. He was the first to compile chess problems, called mansubat. He also showed how to use the chessboard as a kind of abacus for purposes of calculation. He was the first to use coordinates to record positions and moves in chess. He may have been the first to discover the knight’s tour. He described a variation of shatranj played with dice. This is the earliest recorded instance of the use of dice to determine the moves of a game.
In 845, ar-Razi wrote Latif fi-sh shatranj (Elegance in Chess), a book of shatranj problems. He also wrote a book called Kitab ash-shatranj (Book of shatranj).
In 847, ar-Razi won a match against al-Adli in the presence of caliph al-Mutawakkil (821-861) in Baghdad.
In 866, al-Mutazz was playing shatranj when the head of his chief rival was brought to him.
In 880, Abu Muhammad ben Yahya as-Suli was born. He became a very famous Arab shatranj player. His great grandfather was the Turkish prince Sul-takin. His uncle was the poet Ibrahim (ibn al-‘Abbas as-Suli)
Between 902 and 908, as-Suli defeated al-Mawardi, the court shatranj champion of al-Muktafi (who died in 908), Caliph of Baghdad (reigned from 902 to 908). Al-Muktafi then made as-Suli the court shatranj player. As-Suli remained in favor of al-Mukafti until his death, then in the favor of caliphs al-Muqtadir (who died in 932) and ar-Radi (who died in 940). Some of the endgames of as-Suli are still in existence. As-Suli was also famous for his skill in playing shatranj blindfolded. As-Suli also taught shatranj. His most well known student was al-Lajlaj (the stammerer).
As-Suli was the author of Kitab Ash-Shatranj (Book of Chess). This was the first scientific book ever written on chess strategy. It contained information on common chess openings, middle game problems, and annotated endgames. It also contained the first known description of the knight’s tour problem.
Around 910, al-Lajlaj (Abdul Faraj Mhammad ibn Obaidallah) was the first to publish shatranj openings.
Upon the death of ar-Radi in 940, as-Suli fell in disfavor with the new ruler, Al-Muttaqi, who reigned from 940 to 944.. As-Suli went into exile at Basra where he spent the rest of his life in poverty. He died there in 946.
In 987, a general bibliography of shatanj was created by Ibn al-Nadim (who died in 995). This book, called the Kitab al-Fihrist (The Catalogue), included al-Aldi’s Kitab ash-shatranj (Book of Chess), ar-Razi’s Latif fi’sh-shatranj (elegance in chess), as-Suli’s Kitab ash-shatranj in two volumes, al-Laljlaj’s mansubat ash-shatranj (book of chess problems), and B. Aliqlidisi’s Kitab majmu’fi mansubat ash-shatranj (collection of chess problems).
In 1005, al-Hakim (996-1021) banned shatranj in Egypt and ordered all the chess sets burned.
In the 11th century, Muhammad ibn Abbad al-Mutamid (1040-1095), the Moorish king, was regarded as a shatranj patron.
Islamic writers that mention shatranj included Ali Ibn Rabban al-Tabiri (838-923), Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Masudi (896-956), Abu Mansur Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Daqiqi (945-980), Hakim Abul-Qasim Firdawsi (935-1020), al-Malik Muhammad ath-Tha’alibi (961-1038), Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Beruni (973-1048), and Mahmud al-Amuli (died in 1352).
Around 1280, Khalliken (died in 1282) wrote a biography on as-Suli.
venerdì 30 maggio 2008
by Anna Contadini
There is no comprehensive study of Islamic gaming pieces, and information on them is scattered in general books or specialist articles. Research on their identification, their relationship to the various games, their history, and the development of types and shapes would contribute both to the study of games and gaming pieces in Islam, and also, given that many are in ivory, to the history of Islamic ivories in general. In this context the collection of ivory gaming pieces in the Ashmolean Museum (1) is of particular importance: not only are the seventeen pieces of very fine craftsmanship (fig.I), but they are also different in style, type and date. They fall into two main groups, depending on the games for which they were used, chess or table games, and will be examined accordingly.
Chess (2)
Chess pieces during the Islamic era fall into two broad families as far as shape is concerned. In one, the pieces are more or less naturalistic representations of figures (3) while in the other they have abstract forms. When, where and why chess pieces started to become abstract is still a matter for debate. (4) It is probable that both types were already in use soon before the Islamic era, but unfortunately our knowledge of this period is very limited.(5) Setting aside the Venafro and S. Sebastiano's catacomb pieces, which are probably of tenth or eleventh-century Italian manufacture, (6) one can cite as possibly relevant only the chess set excavated at Afrasiyab and datable, according to the archaeological context, to the seventh century AD.(7) Our knowledge of pre-Islamic times thus relies essentially on literary references.(8)
In the Islamic period we have no object certainly identifiable as a chess piece before the ninth century. Possibly the earliest are those excavated by the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Iranian Expedition at Nishapur, which are now in the Museum.(9) They are in ivory and of abstract design, with virtually no decoration apart from carved vertical lines (fig.4). There is one interesting exception: the horse (Knight), even if stylized, is still recognizable as a horse. Another Knight, in stone, very similar in its stylized form, is in Kuwait, Dar in
(p.111)
(Figure 1 The Islamic ivory chess pieces, draughtsmen and dice in the Ashmolean Museum.)
al-Athar al-Islamiyya, published here for the first time (fig 5).(10) Those in other sets of abstract pieces are different, however, having a conical shape with one symbolic protuberance at the front (fig.6). But this does not necessarily mean that the shape of the Nishapur piece is archaic, even though there is a temptation to assume that the abstract Nishapur designs derive from earlier figurative styles. In the present state of our knowledge it is not possible to determine the relative chronology of these two types.
All twelve chess pieces in the Ashmolean collection are abstract, and only four probably belong to the same set. Therefore, the first problem is that of identifying the pieces. Unfortunately, in board diagrams in early Islamic treatises on chess the pieces are usually not represented, being identified only by their names, which in Arabic are: shah (King), firman (Queen), fil (bishop), faros (Knight), rukhkh (Rook) and baidaq (Pawn). (11)
It is in a Western manuscript of 1283, the treatise on chess of Alfonso X the Wise, (12) that the pieces are first found clearly drawn (fig.7), (13) with board positions enabling the correct identification to be made. The treatise illustrates in detail every phase of the game, and also the making of chessmen, which are apparently turned on a bow-lathe (fig.8). (14) Other Western manuscripts portray pieces with a (p.112) strong resemblance to those shown here. The Manesse manuscript, a collection of Middle High German love lyrics of the first quarter of the fourteenth century, contains a painting of a chess match between Margrave Otto IV of Brandenburg and a lady, with clearly drawn pieces.(15) A manuscript in Kassel, dated 1334, has a miniature of a couple playing chess.(16) Those in all three manuscripts may be assigned to style set B defined below (see p.8), except for the Bishop and Knight, which belong to set A (fig.9b).
In the Islamic world, later illustrated treatises on chess contain accurate representations of boards and positions, but the pieces are not represented, again only the names being given. They are sometimes shown on the board in miniatures from the Shahnama, illustrating the passage on how the game passed from India to Persia (17) but the painter is concerned with the scene as a whole, especially with the two players. In some the pieces are not readily identifiable, or are only named.(18) However, two Shahnama manuscripts in Berlin, one dated 1489 and the other 1593, include miniatures in which it is possible to recognize a few of them. (19) These all correspond to style set B, including the Bishop and Knight.
Figure 2 (left) Figure of an elephant, ivory, possibly a chess piece. Iraq, late 9th-early l0th century AD. Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, inv. no.63C.
Figure 3 (right) Chariot (Rook), ivory. Reportedly from the Samarkand area, 7th century (?) AD. London, British Museum, inv. no. OA 1991.10-12.1.
(p. 113)
Figure 4 (top) Ivory chess pieces excavated at Nishapur, 9th century AD. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. no.40.170.148.151 (after Wilkinson (1943)).
Style set A.
Figure 5 (bottom) Knight, stone. 9th century AD. Kuwait, Dar al-Athar al-Islamiyya, inv. no.50 Sb (photograph courtesy of the Al-Sabah Collection, Dar al-Athar al-Islamiyya, Kuwait National Museum). Style set A.
(p. 114)
Figure 6 Knight, ceramic, c.11th century AD. Kuwait, Dar al-Athar al-Islamiyya, inv. no. LNS 2730 (photograph courtesy of the Al-Sabah Collection, Dar al-Athar al-Islamiyya, Kuwait National Museum). Style set A.
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The Ashmolean pieces may be approached initially through comparison with other Islamic abstract examples which, in general, have been identified by their resemblance either to modern Islamic abstract chessmen or to their earlier European counterparts. It is helpful, as a first step, to consider each piece in context, that is, to assign it to a particular style set and relate it to pieces in other col lections. Two sets may be distinguished; a list of the pieces belonging to each is given in Appendix I.


